6  Reproducibility vs. replicability across disciplines

This table compares the terms reproducibility and replicability across disciplines, highlighting different interpretations between research communities. (Barba 2018) discusses in more detail different interpretations of reproducibility and replicability across disciplines and stakeholder groups.

Area of knowledge	Reproducibility	Replicability	Additional readings
	To obtain the same results using the original data and exact methods	To obtain consistent results when repeating a study with new data or under similar conditions, and/or similar methods
Experimental sciences (physics, chemistry, biology)	Recreate a specific experiment using the same equipment and protocols	Repeat an experiment with different variables and subjects to verify the generalization of the results	(Baker 2017), (Mesnard and Barba 2017)
Computer science	Obtain the same results when executing the same code and data	Obtain consistent/similar results by implementing the same algorithm or code in a different environment and/or on a different data set	(Peng 2011), (Stodden and Miguez 2014), (The Turing Way Community 2019)
Social sciences (psychology, sociology)	Obtain similar results when repeating a study using new participants	Repeat a study with different groups of participants or in different cultural contexts to evaluate the generalizability of the findings	(Baker 2015), (Open Science Collaboration 2015), (Nosek et al. 2022)
Mathematical science	Obtain the same results by following the same reasoning and methods.	Repetition of demonstrations and proofs in different mathematical contexts to confirm the validity and generality of the theorems	(Stodden et al. 2013), (Donoho and Stodden 2015)
Economics	Obtain the same results when applying the same model to new data sets or economic contexts	Repetition of economic analyses with data from different periods or in different regions to evaluate the robustness of the results.	(Ioannidis et al. 2017), (Vilhuber 2020)
Education	Replicate a study using the same design and methods to confirm the results	Repeat a study in different schools or educational settings to examine the applicability of the findings	(Foundation and Education Sciences U. S. Department of Education 2019), (LeBeau et al. 2021), (Thomas Perry and Lea 2022), (Karathanasis et al. 2022), (Pownall et al. 2023)
Medicine and health sciences	Repeat a study using the same methods to validate the results	Repeat a clinical study with different patient groups or under different healthcare conditions to confirm the applicability of the findings.	(Ioannidis 2005), (Button et al. 2013), (Niven et al. 2018) , (Stupple et al. 2019), (McDermott et al. 2021), (Moassefi et al. 2023), (Montgomery 2024)
Policing reseach and criminalistics	Obtain the same results when using the same code and data	Obtain similar results when repeating a study using new subjects, or in different settings/regions/timeframe	(Lowenkamp et al. 2003), (Monk and Koziarski 2023), (Langton et al. 2023), (Nivette et al. 2023)

Baker, M. 2015. “First Results from Psychology’s Largest Reproducibility Test.” In Nature News. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature.2015.17433.

Baker, M. 2017. “Check Your Chemistry.” Nature 548 (7668): 485–88. https://doi.org/10.1038/548485a.

Barba, Lorena A. 2018. “Terminologies for Reproducible Research.” In arXiv Preprint arXiv:1802.03311. https://arxiv.org/abs/1802.03311.

Button, KS, JPA Ioannidis, C Mokrysz, et al. 2013. “Power Failure: Why Small Sample Size Undermines the Reliability of Neuroscience.” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 14 (5): 365–76. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3475.

Donoho, David L, and Victoria Stodden. 2015. “Reproducible Research in the Mathematical Sciences.” In Princeton Companion to Applied Mathematics. Princeton University Press. https://www.stodden.net/papers/PCAM_20140620-VCS.pdf.

Foundation, The National Science, and The Institute of Education Sciences U. S. Department of Education. 2019. Companion Guidelines on Replication & Reproducibility in Education Research. The National Science Foundation. https://www.nsf.gov/pubs/2019/nsf19022/nsf19022.pdf.

Ioannidis, JP. 2005. “Why Most Published Research Findings Are False.” PLOS Medicine 2 (8): e124. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.0020124.

Ioannidis, JP, TD Stanley, and H Doucouliagos. 2017. “The Power of Bias in Economics Research.” The Economic Journal 127 (605): F236–65. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecoj.12461.

Karathanasis, Nestoras, Daniel Hwang, Vibol Heng, et al. 2022. “Reproducibility Efforts as a Teaching Tool: A Pilot Study.” PLOS Computational Biology 18 (11): e1010615. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1010615.

Langton, Samuel, Stijn Ruiter, and Tim Verlaan. 2023. “Describing the Scale and Composition of Calls for Police Service: A Replication and Extension Using Open Data.” Police Practice and Research 24 (5): 523–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2022.2102494.

LeBeau, Brandon, Scott Ellison, and Ariel M. Aloe. 2021. “Reproducible Analyses in Education Research.” Review of Research in Education 45 (1): 195–222. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X20985076.

Lowenkamp, Christopher T., Francis T. Cullen, and Travis C. Pratt. 2003. “Replicating Sampson and Groves’s Test of Social Disorganization Theory: Revisiting a Criminological Classic.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 40 (4): 351–73. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427803256077.

McDermott, Matthew B. A., Shirly Wang, Nikki Marinsek, Rajesh Ranganath, Luca Foschini, and Marzyeh Ghassemi. 2021. “Reproducibility in Machine Learning for Health Research: Still a Ways to Go.” Science Translational Medicine 13 (586): eabb1655. https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.abb1655.

Mesnard, Olivier, and Lorena A. Barba. 2017. “Reproducible and Replicable Computational Fluid Dynamics: It’s Harder Than You Think.” Computing in Science Engineering 19 (4): 44–55. https://doi.org/10.1109/MCSE.2017.3151254.

Moassefi, Mana, Pouria Rouzrokh, Gian Marco Conte, et al. 2023. “Reproducibility of Deep Learning Algorithms Developed for Medical Imaging Analysis: A Systematic Review.” Journal of Digital Imaging 36 (5): 2306–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10278-023-00870-5.

Monk, Khadija, and Jacek Koziarski. 2023. “Replicating & Reproducing Policing Research.” Police Practice and Research 24 (5): 519–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2023.2221075.

Montgomery, Erwin B. 2024. Reproducibility in Biomedical Research: Epistemological and Statistical Problems and the Future. 2nd ed. Academic Press.

Niven, Daniel J., T. Jared McCormick, Sharon E. Straus, et al. 2018. “Reproducibility of Clinical Research in Critical Care: A Scoping Review.” BMC Medicine 16 (1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-018-1018-6.

Nivette, Amy, Christof Nägel, and Emily Gilbert. 2023. “Examining the Effects of the Killing of George Floyd by Police in the United States on Attitudes of Black Londoners: A Replication.” Police Practice and Research 24 (5): 575–96. https://doi.org/10.1080/15614263.2023.2185241.

Nosek, Brian A., Tom E. Hardwicke, Hannah Moshontz, et al. 2022. “Replicability, Robustness, and Reproducibility in Psychological Science.” Annual Review of Psychology 73 (1): 719–48. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-020821-114157.

Open Science Collaboration. 2015. “Estimating the Reproducibility of Psychological Science.” Science 349 (6251): aac4716. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aac4716.

Peng, RD. 2011. “Reproducible Research in Computational Science.” Science 334 (6060): 1226–27. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1213847.

Pownall, Madeleine, Flávio Azevedo, Laura M. König, et al. 2023. “Teaching Open and Reproducible Scholarship: A Critical Review of the Evidence Base for Current Pedagogical Methods and Their Outcomes.” Royal Society Open Science 10 (5). https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.221255.

Stodden, Victoria, David H Bailey, Jonathan Borwein, R. J. LeVeque, W. Rider, and W. Stein. 2013. “Setting the Default to Reproducible. Reproducibility in Computational and Experimental Mathematics.” Computational Science Research. SIAM News 46 (5): 4–6. https://stodden.net/icerm_report.pdf.

Stodden, V, and SB Miguez. 2014. “Best Practices for Computational Science: Software Infrastructure and Environments for Reproducible and Extensible Research.” Journal of Open Research Software 2 (1): e21. https://doi.org/10.5334/jors.ay.

Stupple, Aaron, David Singerman, and Leo Anthony Celi. 2019. “The Reproducibility Crisis in the Age of Digital Medicine.” Npj Digital Medicine 2 (1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41746-019-0079-z.

The Turing Way Community. 2019. The Turing Way: A Handbook for Reproducible Data Science. Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3233986.

Thomas Perry, Rebecca Morris, and Rosanna Lea. 2022. “A Decade of Replication Study in Education? A Mapping Review (2011–2020).” Educational Research and Evaluation 27 (1-2): 12–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803611.2021.2022315.

Vilhuber, Lars. 2020. “Reproducibility and Replicability in Economics.” Harvard Data Science Review 2 (4). https://doi.org/10.1162/99608f92.4f6b9e67.